Library management system Essay

1. 1 Background of the study With diminishing finances, it is rarely possible for a library or information center to have enough resources to fulfill the needs of its clients. What is being delivered is only a portion of what their clients actually need (Ramos & Mohd Ali, 2005). Collaboration is widely recognized as the best way for libraries to cope with the ever increasing challenges: volume of information resources; nature and quality of information; user needs and expectations; information and communication technology competencies and infrastructure; inflated cost of information resources; and staffing needs. However, although these challenges have continued to prevail, libraries working under collaborative initiatives like the Consortium of Academic and Research Libraries in Illinois (CARLI) have registered tremendous success. This thesis reports the findings of a thorough study to establish the factors that have led to the success of CARLI and how such success factors can be applied in libraries of developing countries like Uganda. Emphasis is placed on the establishment of CARLI leadership, the sharing of responsibility and decision making processes as well as sources of funding for the consortium. Also central to the research study is exploration of the role and responsibility of participating member libraries and their contributions to and expectations from the consortium. I contend that lack of funding to facilitate consortium activitiesis not the central factor in the failed progress of the planned consortium activities in Uganda, rather it is the lack of committed leadership and cooperation among participating libraries that is responsible for the lack of progress. In any kind of organization or cooperation like a library consortium, funding has never been enough due to ever changing technologies and continuous demands from library patrons. However, good leadership and cooperation among membership plays a bigger role in achieving a common goal. Having and working towards a common goal, under dedicated, dynamic and faithful leadership with an active and energetic membership plays a great role in the success of a consortium. 2 To assist in the possible improvement of consortium operations in Uganda, I need to understand the leadership, responsibility, staffing, collection, policies and procedures, funding and structure of academic libraries in the participating membership of CARLI in comparison with those of Uganda. My research has incorporated interviews with CARLI staff and a questionnaire survey to all the participating CARLI membership. 1. 2 Problem statement. There is now ample research on the benefits of library collaboration mainly in developed countries (Kaul 2001, Riley 2006, Wright 2006, Bennett 2007, Foulonneau et al. 2007, Williams 2008, Feather, Bracken & Diaz 2008, Butler 1998, Domatob, 1998). In Africa, a lot of research has been devoted toward the need for collaboration (Musoke 2008, Paulos 2008, Kinengyere 2007, Ibeun & Obasuyi 2007,Amaeshi (Ed. ) 2003, Kaul 2001, Rosenberg 2001, Ade Ajayi, Goma & Johnson 1996) and a few registered successes (Musoke 2008, Paulos 2008, Rosenberg 2001, Kinengyere 2007, Ibeun & Obasuyi 2007, Amaeshi (Ed.) 2003, Kaul 2001). However, no research has been reported on how to apply identified success factorsfrom developed countries in order to bring a change in developing countries. Developed countries have registered tremendous success stories compared to less developed countries; failure in developing countries has been attributed to poor funding without looking at other factors like committed leadership and cooperative membership. The National Council for Higher Education (NCHE) (2007) indicates that there are six public and twenty-four private universities giving a total of thirty registered universities in Uganda. Of these, only twenty-one universities and two research institutions are actively and currently participating in the Consortium of Uganda University Libraries, (CUUL) (2008). It is clear, however, that most of these universities do not have adequate resources to support certain, if not all, areas of their academic and research programmes. Since 2005, access to computer facilities, books and other learning materials has improved; still many are farfrom reaching ratios comparable to world standards; and, unfortunately, the student tobook ratio dropped from twenty-three books per student to nineteen in 2006 (NCHE, 2007). The NCHE 2006 (2007) study further shows that there has been a 9. 4% increase in the total number of students that enroll in the universities from 124,313 in 2005 to 137,190 in 2006 without an increase in 3  the number of information materials in most of these universities. Although there is evidence of no increase in the number of information resources to be used by students in these universities, NCHE instead attributes the low level of research across the higher education spectrum to inadequate funding; more so, the student to book ratio stated above is far below the set standards and NCHE does not suggest for these universities to participate in resource sharing as a way of bridging the student to book ratio. The NCHE (2007) acknowledges the usefulness of the library, stating that â€Å"the library†¦ is the heartbeat of an academic institution†. However, its 2006 study indicates that universities have continued to reduce the amount of money spent on books (0. 1% in private and in 2. 5% in public universities) and that library space is being converted to student instruction classrooms. This is an indication of low spending on library books; much as these universities are still working harder to acquire information materials, space to store them is also becoming another challenge. One of the important things I have learned all through the time I have worked at Makerere University Library’s outreach programme inpartnership with CUUL as Deputy Country Coordinator for E-resources, on top of other significant institutional challenges among African universities, a committed leadership and membership was noticed as still lacking among CUUL membership. While there are already tangible successes registered by CUUL, still much has not been achieved, like spearheading resource sharing as one of its objectives since inception. This study begins to address issues that are surrounding the inefficiency involved in partnership, networking and collaboration among university libraries in Uganda. This includes how universities with far better information resources like Makerere University can share with newly established universities lacking sufficient library resources. More particularly, the study directly addresses consortium issues like leadership, communication and membership contribution as key factors in this kind of collaboration. 1. 3 Objectives of the study. †¢ Study the consortium history among academic and research libraries in the state of Illinois 4 †¢ Identify the factors that influence libraries to join and continue to participate in a consortium †¢ Determine how consortium values affect participating libraries †¢ Determine the effectiveness and extent of resource sharing among CARLI member libraries †¢ Identify factors that lead to the success of a consortium other than money †¢ Suggest practical ways for resource sharing in developing countries like Uganda 1. 4 Limitations of the study. Any comparison of differing societies, or search for causal relationships must be conducted within dimensional identities (Amaeshi (Ed), 2003); meaning, a perceived need to understand the economic, political, educational and sociological factors that affect information sharing among universities in both developed and developing countries. While the majority of the developments are standard practice in academic libraries in the developed world, many of these issues are relatively new to us in developing countries, and we have had to contextualize them by finding practical but local ways of addressing some of them (Musoke, 2008). In this study therefore, I do fully understand the dimensional identities that exist among CARLI and CUUL; I try to contextualize identified success factors by finding practical but local ways of applying these factors that have led to CARLI advancement putting into context the economic, political, educational and sociological environments of operation between the two consortia. 5 CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW. 2. 1 Introduction In my literature review, I have found a good representative literature discussing the need for collaboration among Uganda’s universities and research institutions and a few outlines of the benefits so far registered in these universities. However, little is written in detail about resource sharing as a way to bridge the shortage of information resources among these universities. I am grateful to some authors (Musoke 2008, Paulos 2008, NCHE 2007, Rosenberg 2001, Kaul 2001) who identified some of the factors that have hindered collaboration in Africa, although their discussions outline funding as a major factor in this progress as opposed to good leadership, effective communication and responsive membership. By studying the relevant literature, it will help me understand more fully how other factors play a big role in the development of consortium in developing countries. 2. 1. 1 State of higher education in Uganda. To date, the existing physical resources of higher education institutions are quite inadequate. Past political instability, lack of financial resources and the general lack of a culture that values maintenance have combined to cause gross negligence in the maintenance of physical infrastructure including laboratories, seminar rooms, libraries, research facilities and staff offices (Musisi, 2003). Higher education received about 10 percent of a total Ministry budget of UGX 619. 93 billion in the 2004/05 budget year (Ministry of Education and Sports,  2005), a rate that has remained more or less constant since the mid 1990s. The implementation of cost sharing in institutions of higher learning has increased revenue generation to supplement transfers from the government. In addition to cost sharing, funds are generated internally through private sponsorship of students, consultancies, sales of services and contributions from donors, (Musisi, 2003). However these sources have not beenable to accommodate the ever increasing budget needs. Due to such poor funding, much has been left undone. 2. 1. 2 Structure of academic libraries in Uganda According to the Universities and Other Tertiary Institutions Act of 2001, with reference to Makerere University library structure (Makerere University Library, 2007), 6 the overall administration of libraries is vested in the office of the University Librarian who reports to the Vice-Chancellor through the Deputy Vice-Chancellor in Charge of Academic Affairs (DVC-AA). The University Librarian is a member of Makerere University Top Management and Senate. Within the library, the University Librarian and deputies form the Library’s Management team, which works with heads of sections and branch libraries to implement University Library policies and programmes, and enforce library rules and regulations. The policy making body of the University Library is the Academic Programmes and Library Committee, which is a senate committee chaired by the DVC-AA. It is composed of members of Senate representing the sciences, arts and humanities, library, students and other relevant stakeholders. 2. 1. 3 History of consortium in Uganda To strengthen the network of librarians, researchers and academics in developing countries and Uganda in particular, the International Network for the Availability of Scientific Publications (INASP) encouraged librarians to form national consortia. During a workshop on the topic of library cooperation for effective provision of information in Uganda and beyond, CUUL was established in 2001. Areas of cooperation include resource mobilization and sharing, and training and marketing of member libraries (Kinengyere, 2007). One of the challenges being addressed by CUUL is the sustainability of e-journal subscriptions atthe end of donor funding. In November 2005, CUUL decided on the mechanism of cost-sharing the e-resources, starting in 2006. Out of the 43 registered Programme for the Enhancement of Research Information institutions-(PERI)-Uganda, only 11 (25%) responded to the e-resources sustainability initiative in time for the 2007 subscriptions and this trend has not changed to date (Kinengyere, 2007). The networking and collaboration of CUUL has not yielded good results as outlined in its objectives and thishas been blamed on the lack of funds without looking at other factors like the commitment of its membership, and trust from its leadership. Both CUUL and CARLI which began in July 1, 2005, do have a lot in common in their formation. Like UIUC for CARLI, Makerere University Library is the coordinating institution for CUUL under the PERI programme. The current establishment of CUUL as per its constitution (2001) is composed of a five member elected executive committee (Chairperson, Vice Chairperson, Treasurer, Secretary, 7 Publicity) who conduct CUUL activities in addition to their institutional responsibilities; and a committee of representatives from actively participating institutions called ‘Functional committees’ who help to coordinate CUUL activities in their respective institutions. It is interesting to note that the ‘Functional committees’ referred to by CUUL are never as active as they should be. 2. 1. 4 The need for collaboration A perceived need for collaboration among the African university libraries was stated as early as 1990 (Ifidon, 1990); and was outlined in the Carnegie meeting of 2004, which identified the ability to participate in a global economy that is increasingly centered on access to knowledge as a critical key in solving the problems of the African nations. One of the goals of the conference was to develop partnerships between libraries and donors, and establish a platform on which future consortia and agendas could be built. During the meeting, many problems faced by African university libraries were discussed, such as poor networks, little cooperation between institutions that create their own databases of local materials, and very few digitization programs to increase African content on the Web and respond to the thousands of different cultures and languages across the continent. The benefits of collaboration, consortia, networks and peer support have been emphasized in information science literature for a long time. Most of the success stories reported by African University Librarians revolve around collaboration and networking within institutions to lobby policy makers, within the country to form consortia and share the subscription of e-resources, build capacity andget professional support. The actual and potential of networking, cooperation and digitization is to modify the functions of acquiring, storing and disseminating information and knowledge, hence the need to be supported (Musoke, 2008). Because of limited resources there is, therefore, need to build on the achievements, share experiences and best practices through collaboration and networks. 2. 1. 5 Resource sharing The concept of resource sharing has been used in the developed countries as a means to alleviate the resource inadequacies of individual libraries. In Africa, it has been seized upon as a way of sustaining informationservices. Rosenberg (2001, p. 14- 8. 15) in her paper â€Å"The sustainability of libraries and resource centers in Africa† quoted a Kenyan librarian who concluded that â€Å"there is no doubt that resource sharing programmes have a significant role to play in developing countries, given the problem of scarce resources† and â€Å"if libraries are to continueto meet the demands of other users, increased cooperation and resource sharing are vital†. Rosenberg (1993) continues to note that on the ground there is little in the way of resource sharing. In some ways the situation has deteriorated, as systems that used towork (like the East African Literature Service) have collapsed. The survey (Rosenberg, 2001) of University libraries in Africa found that interlibrary lending (the main, if not the only, form of resource sharing practiced), was minimal, especially in-country and within Africa. Such evidence suggests that there is a lot that needs to be done in order to bring a change about the idea of resource sharing among universities and research institutions. Even though these universities have little to share, even a little sharing may help future sharing of acquisitions in the most demanding subject areas. 2. 1. 6 Research and research paradigms In her paper â€Å"Strategies for addressing the university library users’ changing needs and practices in Sub-Saharan Africa†, Musoke (2008) states that there is drastic change in the methods of conducting research and research paradigms. For example, the demand for a multidisciplinary approach to research has meant that a research project in the Medical School, which would ordinarily require medical literature now also requires some social science and ICT components. Such approaches put further demands on the already meager information resourcesin our libraries, hence the need for sharing. The diversity of research methods is an indicator of the complexity of research and the challenges of meeting the information needs of human beings conducting research. Such challenges call for immediate revival of resource sharing among these universities in order to meet the changing needs. The presence and advancements in information technology can also help in this process. 2. 1. 7 Policy formation and leadership The Association of African Universities (AAU) emphasizes that the way ahead for the development of research and postgraduate capacity in African universities is through selective concentration of resources within the university system, and the 9  achievement of collaborative links among African universities, and between African universities and research institutions (AAU, 2009). In order to achieve that goal, AAU suggested that providing effective leadership to facilitate meaningful regional interuniversity cooperation among African universities may help to ease the resource constraints and to build a viable educational enterprise in Africa capable of meeting the challenges ahead (Ade Ajayi, Goma & Johnson, 1996) 2. 1. 8 Consortium membership. Among the most serious problems of Uganda’s libraries is the low level of and response rate towards collaboration and consortium in a number of library and information science activities. According to Paulos(2008), the most successful libraries in southern Africa, like in Botswana and South Africa, have been able to form strong alliances. Developing complex and strong links and partnerships facilitates the utilization of information resources. An example of a successful regional network is the Association for Health Information and Libraries in Africa (AHILA). In addition to its international connections, AHILA has two internal concerns—sharing scarce resources through interlibrary cooperation and developing systems for improved bibliographic control of the health literature produced in Africa (Kinegyere, 2008). Such strategies if applied at the national level will not only strengthen regional networks, but also work as satellite communication networks for international organizations to overcome the problems of lack of physical infrastructure and as a basis for enhancing access to information among university libraries with fewer resources. 2. 1. 9 Library funding The importance of government support towards consortia is elucidated in the plan of the United Nations (UN) World Summit on theInformation Society. This body acknowledges the significance of addressing fundamental issues of development in universal access, infrastructure, information and communication technologies, literacy, skills and training, E-learning, and E-Agriculture (Ibeun & Obasuyi, 2007). If Uganda is a signatory, it should join other countries in the attempt to support libraries and archives. Lack of funding has been a bigger issue among university libraries and has been attributed to lack of understanding of the role of libraries in an institution of higher 10 learning by university and political leaders as it emerged from the Carnegie conference (2004) and mentioned by many other writers (Musoke 2008, Ade Ajayi, Goma & Johnson 1996, Paulos 2008, Rosenberg 2001). However, not all African countries are dependent on external funding. Libraries in Botswana and South Africa are examples where funding is internally generated and the quality of library resources is very high, (Paulos, 2008). As a source of funding for libraries in Africa, including Uganda, Paulos (2008) in his paper â€Å"Library resources, knowledge production, and Africa in the 21 st century† suggested the need for funding from African governments; the importance of proactive approaches on the part of academic librarians in Africa – including the importance of identifying unique materials in the collections and seeking collaboration to digitize them; and the importance of outreach, in particular, seeking the support of Africans in the diaspora. 2. 1. 10 Increasing number of library users The growing number of university students, the increase in study programmes coupled with paradigm shifts in curriculum and research, the increase in research and the rapid ICT developments have all changed the routines of traditional academic librarianship (Musoke, 2008). The demand for information resources has increased, with diminishing budgets, resulting in a poor service to library users. This is further evidenced in the NCHE report of 2007 as outlined above. 2. 2 Consortium of Academic and Research Libraries in Illinois (CARLI) CARLI is an unincorporated association, with a total of 153 member institutions all over the State of Illinois (CARLI, July 2009). 2. 2. 1 History July 1, 2005 saw the merging of three Illinois academic library consortia to a consolidated consortium called CARLI; the merged  consortia include: Illinois Cooperative Collection Management Program (ICCMP), formed in 1986 and provided statewide collection studies and grants; Illinois Digital Academic Library (IDAL), formed in 1999 and provided centralized electronic resource licensing; and Illinois Library Computer Systems Organization (ILCSO) formed in 1980, provided the shared integrated library system Illinet Online which became I-Share in the consolidation. The merging of these three consortia was aimed at improving the efficiency and cost 11  effectiveness of services, increasing the effectiveness of consortial and member library staff efforts, and creating opportunities to pursuenew programs and services that the three constituent consortia would not have been able to provide on their own. CARLI has continued to add new products, services and programs including: The I-Share integrated library system, E-resources licensing, digital collections and statewide collections awards and programs. 2. 2. 2 Strategic plan, values, and goals CARLI remains fully committed to fulfilling its established mission: The Consortium leads Illinois academic libraries tocreate and sustain a rich, supportive, and diverse knowledge environment that furthers teaching, learning, and research through the sharing of collections, expertise and programs  and attaches great importance to cooperation among academic and research libraries of all types, sizes and missions; respect for the diverse missions and populations served by member institutions; recognition of each member institution’s autonomy; Sharing the full range of academic library resources effectively and economically; free and open access to all intellectual resources; excellence in providing services and programs; innovation in identifying and implementing collaborative solutions to shared challenges; responsiveness to member needs; cost-effectiveness in the delivery of programs, services, and products; careful stewardship of all CARLI resources; protecting the privacy and security of library records; supportingintellectual freedom; and advocacy for academic and research libraries at the local, state, regional and national levels. Furthermore, the consortium reaffirms its commitment to resource sharing, through the continued maintenance and development of its integrated library management system, and the provision of meaningful electronic resources, through brokering, subsidization and cost-sharing agreements as outlined in its four broad strategic priorities: Collaboration and Leadership, Innovation, Resource Sharing, and E-Resources (CARLI, 2007). 12 2. 2. 3 Membership 2. 2. 3. 1 How to become a CARLI member All higher education institutions in Illinois that are recognized by the Illinois Board of Higher Education, and are members of the Illinois Library and Information Network (ILLINET) are eligible for membership in CARLI; andwill agree to abide by the terms and conditions of the CARLI Membership Agreement and any other subsidiary agreements governing participation in a specific CARLI service. However individual member libraries retain autonomy over their own operations. CARLI membership includes three categories each with a different entitlement and responsibility, and different annual membership fees. As of the fall of2009 there were 107 Governing, 30 Associate and 16 Basic members. 2. 2. 3. 2 Membership categories and obligations Governing membership is entitled to participate in all CARLI products, services, and programs at the fullest level of central support; participate in all CARLI committees, task forces, and user groups; receive priority status on waiting lists to join I-Share and other premium services like enrollment in training sessions. Associate membership is eligible for most services and programs, and participates in CARLI governance as a group represented by a single voting member on the CARLI Board of Directors. Basic membership qualifies for selected services and programs, and does not participate in CARLI governance or voting. CARLI member institutions may upgrade to a higher or move to a lesser membership level by following the CARLI Bylaws. Eligible institutions that have not joined CARLI may participate in CARLIemail discussion lists, and may attend CARLI training events and workshops at a feesometimes higher than that of the three membership categories. 2. 2. 3. 3 Membership benefits. CARLI serves over 98% of Illinois higher education students, faculty and staff at 153 member institutions of which 76 institutions benefit from I-Share; E-resources brokering with over 1,000 discounted subscriptions to electronic journals and other resources; a 24-hour delivery by Illinois Library Delivery Service (ILDS) to 141 CARLI libraries and all the state’s regional library systems; the Book Digitization Initiative for Illinois academic and research libraries; in-house development of VuFind an open 13 source front end to I-Share catalog; and participation in the University of Rochester’s Extensible Catalog project. 2. 2. 3. 4 Funding sources CARLI’s sources of funding include annual subscription membership fees where Governing membership contribution ranges from a minimum of $1000 to a maximum of $10,000 and is calculated by student Full Time Equivalent (FTE) enrollment and institution type, Associate members pay $500, and Basic membership is $100. Other funding includes contributions towards e-resources brokering, development of library systems like I-share catalogue and VuFind, support for digitization projects and the Open Content Alliance, through conducting workshops where each membership contributes different fees to participate in any activity, and grants from the state and federal governments. The CARLI financial year runs from July 1 – June 30. 2. 2. 4 Governance CARLI operates under the direction of the CARLI Bylaws 2008 (CARLI, 2008, 2006). The University of Illinois serves as CARLI’s fiscal and contractual agent under a Memorandum of Understanding between the Board of Trustees of the University of Illinois and CARLI Board of Directors. CARLI operates as a unit of the University Office for Planning. and Administration, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. 2. 2. 4. 1 Board of Directors and committees CARLI Board of Directors oversees the affairs of CARLI except those reserved for the entire membership; sets strategic directionof the consortium; oversees all CARLI committees; reviews and approves the detail and thetotal organizational budget each year; advises and gives recommendations on the hiring and evaluation of the Assistant Vice-President for Planning & Administration/ CARLIExecutive Director; and provides advice and input to the University of Illinois in matters relating to the Consortium. The Board meets regularly throughout the year. In addition to the Board of Directors, there are several committees, working groups, user groups, and task groups established to support the Board in carrying out operational and programmatic activities of the consortium; assist the Board in the development, implementation, operation, and evaluation of programs and services; provide the Board with advice and recommendations related to policy, management, fiscal, and on other matters that 14 require the Board’s attention. Each committee or group has CARLI liaison fulltime staff who works as a focal point for a designated committee; committees meet quarterly with CARLI Board of Directors or as required. The committees and groups are required to present reports at the end of each task assigned tothem; the reports are published and made public online on the CARLI web page. 2. 2. 4. 2 Board committee organization Board committees are of two categories, standing (permanent) committees referenced in the CARLI Bylaws and temporary â€Å"ad hoc† groups established to carry out a specific task and then discharged. All committeesreport to the Board on a schedule established by the Board. Each Board committee has a CARLI staff liaison. Ad hoc groups have sunset dates at which point the group will be discharged. 2. 2. 4. 2. 1 Standing (permanent) committees There are five permanent committees established by the CARLI Bylaws. Executive committee: The officers of the CARLI Board of Directors shall constitute the Executive Committee. The Committee is advisory both to the Chair and to the Board of Directors on scheduling agenda topics and preparing information for the Board of Directors’ review and action. The Executive Committee is authorized to act on behalf of the Board of Directors on any urgent matter requiring Board approval, unless a regular or special meeting of the Board of Directors is scheduled to take place within 48 hours. The CARLI Board elects its own Vice-Chair/Chair-Elect each year to join the current Chair, Past Chair, and CARLI Executive Director in forming the Executive Committee and will meet as needed to update the Board on their plans and actions. CARLI Executive Director is the Staff or Board liaison. The finance committee provides the Board with recommendations related to annual budget requests, the annual budget, the annual financial performance report, and any other financial matters that require the Board’s attention. It’s composed of four Board members, one each from public institutions, private institutions, community colleges, and one at large. The Past CARLI Chair isthe chair of the committee. The Finance committee reports to the CARLI Board of Directors, on a quarterly basis. CARLI Staff or Board liaisons are the CARLI Executive Director, and CARLI Director for Business and Financial Services. 15 The personnel committee provides the Board with recommendations and input into the recruitment, compensation and evaluation of performance of the Assistant VicePresident and Executive Director. The Board, in turn, provides its recommendations to the University of Illinois. The Committee may also provide the Board with recommendations and input into any other personnel matters that require its attention. The Personnel Committee is composed of four Board members, one each from public institutions, private institutions, community colleges, and one at large. The ViceChair/Chair Elect is the Chair of the Committee. The group reports to the CARLI Board of Directors and University of Illinois Associate Vice President for Planning and Budgeting on an annual basis. The CARLI Board liaison is the University of Illinois Associate Vice President for Planning and Budge.

Does a plant grow bigger if watered with milk? Essay

The question being asked here would be â€Å"Does a plant grow bigger if watered with milk? Or water? † In my opinion the answer would be milk because milk contains vitamins and calcium that water does not have, but the answer is to be found out later during the project. Well, it is known that for a plant to survive it will definitely need air, soil, water, light, and space to grow, but maybe if we replaced water with milk, plants could grow bigger and quicker, you never know. To test my theory, every morning before school I will water two of my plants with water like I regularly do, and two of my plants with milk which will be something new and will hopefully help my plants grow big and strong. The milk will probably help make the plants stronger. We humans need to have nutrients which we get from the food we eat that helps our bodies grow and stay healthy. Of course, just like us, plants also need the nutrients to grow. Milk actually contains quite a few nutrients, which may or may not help the plant grow bigger. Milk could also act as the plants fertilizer which could improve the plants growth. Those are just some of the ways that milk would help a plant grow. Well to start off, milk does make our bones stronger, it sounds like it can also make a plant grow taller because of the calcium that it contains. So if milk helps us grow, why shouldn’t it help plants grow? I know that water is important to plants for many reasons, like moving the gases during photosynthesis and making glucose needed for the plants energy. However, plants can also grow when they are watered with other liquids. Watering plants with different liquids can give the plants not only the water they need for growing, but it also gives the plant other gases and nutrients water does not have that will support their growth. Milk has so many qualities that would help a plant grow. Milk helps protect the plant with things by changing the pH levels of leaves to avoid diseases to attack the plant. It can also control the pH level of the soil. The pH is what makes the plant work. Milk will make the vermin and bacteria in the soil grow better too. The milk contains some proteins that could be used by the plant as a source of nitrogen for the improvement of growth, calcium in the milk would help the plant to grow better. Milk has many different types of waters in it including sugars, carbohydrates, and lactose, some of which the plant can use to grow bigger. Some farmers use milk to make those really big orange pumpkins for carnival contests even bigger. Milk contains many, many, many nutrients some can help the plant grow, some may have no effect on the plants growth, and some might actually kill the plant. For example milk contains some protein that could be used by the plant as a source of nitrogen for helping it to grow and the milk can add nutrients to the soil. Since the milk has calcium, giving the plant some of this additional calcium from milk could possibly help improve the plants growth. The milks sugar, also known as the lactose, probably won’t be able to be used by the plant. It could actually cause a build-up in the soil which could damage the plant leading it to die. The nitrogen in milk is full of protein, but the bacteria and the fungi in the soil will break this down and some of the nitrogen will be released as nitrate or ammonia. These ions that contain the nitrogen can then be taken into the plant roots for growth. Milk also has vitamin A, vitamin B12, vitamin B6, vitamin D, zinc, and many other elements some of which will not make any difference in the plants growth. It is known that milk will definitely help tomato plants with their growth, as well as some other garden vegetables, a perennial (which is a plant that lives for more than two years like apples, apricots, bananas etc. ) and even houseplants. Milk contains water, carbohydrates and lactose. Since plants need water for them to grow, the water inside milk can also help it grow. I don’t know if you’ve heard of this, but milk can also be a fertilizer to help a plant grow. You probably do know that milk contains calcium. Calcium is actually a very important plant macronutrient. Macronutrients are the foods that help plants grow and work. Calcium helps a plant build its cell walls which have the job of transporting the other plants nutrients, protecting the cell membrane and the cell in general. Also the calcium level in the soil controls the soil pH, the pH is what makes the plant work or not work. If the calcium is taken out of the soil, the soil will become more acid and can change the plants growth. So when you give plants milk, you are practically giving them calcium, which we all know we need to grow. Milk has proteins, vitamin B and sugars that are good for plants, helping their health and crop growth. The germs that eat the fertilizer particles of milk are also helpful to the soil. Also, gardeners from back in the old days AND recent scientific plant research say that milk contains fungicidal properties. This means that if you spray milk on plants, it will control the growth of bad fungi. Plant researches in Brazil and in Australia have recently used milk as a fungicide on vegetable crops, grapes, and flowers. They said that spraying a small mix of 1 part of milk and 9 parts of water stopped the fungi from growing. Besides giving your plants a nutritional boost, milk can also help prevent or even stop some of the fungus problems that plants sometimes have. So, will a plant grow bigger when watered with milk? Or water? I continue to believe that the answer is that milk will make a plant grow bigger. Especially after all the information you just read, I think milk would definitely help a plant grow bigger and stronger. All of the milks nutrients will help the plant grow and give it more protein. The calcium in the milk can help the plant in many ways, it helps control the soil, and helps build its cell wall. Finally milk can be a fertilizer for the plants soil and can prevent fungi from forming in the plant. These are just some of the ways in which helps a plant grow. In the end I know that both water and milk will help the plants growth but both in their own ways.

Accounting Handout 7.1

Accounting Handout 7.1 Essay Assignment 8. 1 Handout 1. Internal controls are designed to safeguard assets, encourage employees to follow company policies, promote operational efficiency, and ensure accurate accounting records. Requirements R1. Which objective is most important? R2. Which must the internal controls accomplish for the business to survive? Give your reason. 2. The Sarbanes-Oxley Act affects public companies. Requirement R1. How does the Sarbanes-Oxley Act relate to internal controls? Be specific. 3. Separation of duties is a key internal control. Requirement R1. Explain in your own words why separation of duties is often described as the cornerstone of internal control for safeguarding assets. Describe what can happen if the same person has custody of an asset and also accounts for the asset. 4. There are 5 characteristics identified in the chapter as pitfalls of e-commerce. Requirement R1. List the 5 characteristics identified in the chapter as pitfalls of e-commerce. 5. Answer the following questions about the controls in bank accounts: Requirements R1. Which bank control protects against forgery? R2. Which bank control reports what the bank did with the customer’s cash each period? R3. Which bank control confirms the amount of money put into the bank? 6. The Cash account of Safe and Secure Security Systems reported a balance of $2,490 at May 31, 2011. There were outstanding checks totaling $500 and a May 31 deposit in transit of $300. The bank statement, which came from Tri Cities Bank, listed the May 31 balance of $3,360. Included in the bank balance was a collection of $680 on account from Ryan Saar, a Safe and Secure customer who pays the bank directly. The bank statement also shows a $20 service charge and $10 of interest revenue that Safe and Secure earned on its bank balance. Requirement R1. Prepare Safe and Secure’s bank reconciliation at May 31. 7. Review your results from preparing Safe and Secure Security Systems’ bank reconciliation in problem #6. Requirement R1. Journalize the company’s transactions that arise from the bank reconciliation. Include an explanation with each entry. 1 8. Diedre Chevis sells furniture for DuBois Furniture Company. Chevis is having financial problems and takes $500 that she received from a customer. She rang up the sale through the cash register. Requirement R1. What will alert Betsy DuBois, the controller, that something is wrong? . Review the internal controls over cash receipts by mail presented in the chapter. Requirement R1. Exactly what is accomplished by the final step in the process, performed by the controller? 10. A purchasing agent for Westgate Wireless receives the goods that he purchases and also approves payment for the goods. Requirements R1. How could this purchasing agent cheat his co mpany? R2. How could Westgate avoid this internal control weakness? 11. The following petty cash transactions of Lexite Laminated Surfaces occurred in August: Requirement R1. Prepare journal entries without explanations. 12. Gwen O’Malley, an accountant for Ireland Limited, discovers that her supervisor, Blarney Stone, made several errors last year. Overall, the errors overstated the company’s net income by 20%. It is not clear whether the errors were deliberate or accidental. Requirement R1. What should O’Malley do? 13. The following items could appear on a bank reconciliation: Requirement R1. Classify each item as (1) an addition to the book balance, (2) a subtraction from the book balance, (3) an addition to the bank balance, or (4) a subtraction from the bank balance. 2 14. Louise’s Dance Studio created a $200 imprest petty cash fund. During the month, the fund custodian authorized and signed petty cash tickets as follows: Requirement R1. Make the general journal entries to a. create the petty cash fund and b. record its replenishment. Cash in the fund totals $15, so $10 is missing. Include explanations. 15. Each of the following situations has an internal control weakness. Requirements R1. Identify the missing internal control characteristics in each situation. R2. Identify the possible problem caused by each control weakness. R3. Propose a solution to each internal control problem. 16. The April cash records of Donald Insurance follow: READ: Calculus EssayDonald Insurance’s Cash account shows a balance of $17,040 at April 30. On April 30, Donald Insurance received the following bank statement: 3 Additional data for the bank reconciliation: Requirements R1. Prepare the bank reconciliation of Donald Insurance at April 30, 2011. R2. Journalize any required entries from the bank reconciliation. 17. On November 1, Fab Salad Dressings creates a petty cash fund with an imprest balance of $400. During November, Sunny Lewis, the fund custodian, signs the following petty cash tickets: On November 30, prior to replenishment, the fund contains these tickets plus cash of $245. The accounts affected by petty cash payments are Office supplies expense, Travel expense, Delivery expense, Entertainment expense, and Inventory. Requirements R1. Explain the characteristics and the internal control features of an imprest fund. R2. On November 30, how much cash should the petty cash fund hold before it is replenished? R3. Journalize all required entries to create the fund and replenish it. Include explanations. R4. Make the December 1 entry to increase the fund balance to $450. Include an explanation, and briefly describe what the custodian does. 4

Designing the questions of the survey and interview Dissertation

Designing the questions of the survey and interview - Dissertation Example There are several advantages of Likert scale (Kothari, 2008). First of all it is easy to construct. Secondly it makes the respondent answer each of the questions in the instrument. This means that more data can be collected. Survey questionnaire: How did you get to know about our cafe? 1. From advertising 2. Word of mouth 3. From a travel agency or catalog 4. From magazine How was the service at the table reservation? 1. Excellent. 2. Good 3. Satisfactory 4. Poor Purpose of your visit to our cafe. 1. Business 2. Meetings& events 3. Relaxation /wellness 4. Health & fitness How was the check in procedure ? 1. Excellent 2. Good 3. Satisfactory 4. Poor How was the reception? 1. Excellent 2. Good 3. Satisfactory 4. Poor How was the food quality? 1. Excellent 2. Good 3. Satisfactory 4. Poor How was the service of the coffee shop? 1. Excellent 2. Good 3. Satisfactory 4. Poor How do you rank the menu of the coffee shop? 1. Excellent 2. Good 3. Satisfactory 4. Poor Would you recommend our Caf e to friends or family? Yes No How was the standard of cafe services? 1. Excellent 2. Good 3. Satisfactory 4. Poor Do you prefer any other cafe better than us? ------------------------------------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------------- Please comment on our services which may help us to improve in future. --------------------

Network Planning Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Network Planning - Essay Example The network planning model refers to a smooth structured approach that eliminates some of the redundant elements from the system so as to obtain an optimal network. The logistic network for a single warehouse needs to encompass all the essential elements of the logistic activities so that there is smooth flow of products and information along the logistic chain consisting of a single warehouse. The single warehouse would serve as a centralized warehouse for the overall business operations and would comprise of all the necessary facilities that would be required for the effective coordination amongst all the other elements encompassing marketing department to the customers (Radhakrishnan, 2001). The first step that would be essential for the network design would be proper analysis of all the required information of the company’s operations. This information analysis would enable in incorporating the best strategy for the logistic network. Since there would be a single warehouse that needs to be centralized and handle all of the operations starting from inventory keeping to that of semi-finished or finished products it is very much important to decide on the size and location of the warehouse that would be the next step of the logistic network planning. The next step in designing this optimal network would be calculation of the facility and transportation costs. There needs to be a proper estimation on what are the major costs that is associated with the logistic framework that would be required in the network set up comprising of single warehouse (Waters, 2010).The next step for the design of optimal network would be consideration of various facilities such as vendors, manufacturing center, customer service and the distribution center. These facilities need to be given importance as there is continuous flow of finished products and raw materials amongst these facilities

HR practices Business Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

HR practices Business - Article Example According to the author evaluating the human resources practices of a firm can help you find way to better employ the talent a firm has (Durkin, 2011). A technique or tool that was mentioned in the article that can help managers evaluate their human resources practice is HR audits. The use of an HR audit can give a manager assurance that the human resources practices of the company meet the current legal standards and uphold the internal policies of the company. It can be beneficial for professionals in the HR industry to belong to professional organizations. An organization that has a lot credibility and power in the industry is the Society for Human Resource Management. The organization’s website has a HR audit tool kit that can be used to perform a preliminary audit of the HR function of a firm. The HR function of a company does not replace the necessity for a legal department. Companies can save money on legal expenses by having a lawyer firm on retainer rather than pay a fixed monthly payment to the lawyers of a department. The implementation of an HR audit can help the firm identify potential legal risks associated with its handling of human resources. The strategy is a proactive approach towards risk management. A problem that is occurring often in corporate America is a lack of knowledge about HR regulations and laws. A lot of companies in the United States are breaking labor laws unknowingly. The fact that many companies do not know the laws does not exempt them from compliance. â€Å"One fundamental human resource function you should inspect is the gathering and filing of employee information, from the application to the termination of employment, and all documentation in between† (Durkin, 2011). A common problem in regards to this type of documentation is proper safeguarding of the information. It all starts with the simple things such as having an employee filing cabinet with a key. The human resource department should separate the per sonal information of employees in various categories. There is sensitive information such as social security number, age, medical record or disability data that should not be in the normal employee file that the managers have access too. Access to such data can lead potential discrimination from the managers towards a specific employee. Companies also have to comply with the Family Leave Act. Employee record retention requirements vary by state law with some common federal laws. Confidential information must be protected to protect both the employer and the employees. The Equal Pay Act of 1963 stipulates companies must keep payroll records up to three years. A topic in human resource that was often discussed in class that I believe should have been talk about more in the article is training and development. The author mentioned that it was important for companies to invest in its human resources, but he did not provide solutions to solve the problem. The performance of employees in a corporation can be improved through training and development. The proper use of training and development can improve the employee retention rate of the company. Investing in training and development should be a company wide initiative, but the firm must also identify talent that deserves advance training because the company determined that the employee has potential. The managers of corporations should receive more training than any other employee since they are responsible for the performance of

Database security Questions Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Database security Questions - Essay Example In addition, the moment we think to offer security to our database framework with the intention that no illegal person or user is able to use it. However, the unplanned harms could be minimized by offering guidance to the employees and enforcing fines on violation of the business policies for instance moving away from workplace even though the system is open for working. In this scenario, a company user must be permitted access only relevant data, and diverse business users should be controlled through diverse methods of access for instance interpretation and modification to business critical data. Thus, business strategies at user administration level are able to help make new rules for prohibiting illegal or legal user access issues (Kumar, 2011; Cawley, 2008). Q. 2 Trigger The below given code is taken from (Pattani, 2010; Oracle , 2010; Czuprynski, 2006) CREATE TABLE CUSTOMER_SECTION ( Cst_SectNo sectno_dom, Cst_Name section_dom, Cst_HeadSSN ssn_dom, Cst_Budget budget_dom, CONSTR AINT customer_section_PK PRIMARY KEY (cst_SectNo), CONSTRAINT c_section_FK FOREIGN KEY (cst_HeadSSN) REFERENCES tab_LIBRARIAN (SSN), CONSTRAINT customer_section_budget_TX2 CHECK ((cst_Budget >= 0) AND (cst_Budget IS NOT NULL)), CONSTRAINT customer_section_budget_TX2 CHECK (NOT EXISTS (SELECT * FROM customer_SECTION s WHERE cst_budget Head.Salary AND Lib.Section = S.cst_SectNo AND S.Lib_HeadSSN = Head.SSN and Lib.SSN Head.SSN)) inform_director (Lib.SSN,Lib_HeadSSN); In the above given code we supposed that inform_director() is a process which has already been stored inside the database in addition it could be used by the DBMS (Pattani, 2010). Q: 3 Following are advantages of VPD: (Pattani, 2010; Oracle , 2010; Czuprynski, 2006) VPD offers dynamic security mechanism means that businesses need not to uphold complicated roles and considering grants aspects. By using VPD one can apply over individual rule on every database object Database users are not able to circumvent safety mechanis m inserted inside applications, since

Final take home exam Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Final take home exam - Term Paper Example Hence, the quality of interaction has improved to a great level. This eventful journey of social media development is marked by several milestones. I will be highlighting 5 of the most key moments in the history of social media. In my opinion, the first one is obviously the development of e-mail. E-mail is probably the first form of digital message. The next one is development of Genie, which was an online forum that led the foundation of social media. I believe the third milestone was a major shift in terms of development (Freeman, 2010). It came in the form of world’s first social platform where users actually got the opportunity to get in touch with their loved ones. The website was known to as classmates.com. The emergence of Friendster, improved and modern social media platform is the next big thing to have happened. The craze was such that within the first month of its launch, around 3 million people joined in. The last major breakthrough came in the form of modern day n etworking platforms such as Facebook, Twitter, and Pinterest. These networks support online transfer of various types of file and has actually taken communication to the next level. The journey of social media has been an eventful one and it is expected that with a similar rate of development, soon human being will experience a new world through the eyes of social networking platforms. Properties of social media Social media is referred to as a virtual network or community where users gather to communicate among themselves and at the same time create and exchange information about the various topics. Therefore from the above findings I can conclude that social media acts as a mediator between the users. Some of the key properties of social media are quality, reach, frequency, accessibility, usability, immediacy, and permanence. I believe these aforementioned properties create disparities among the different social media forms and are the reason that leads to various types of social media (Kietzmann, Hermkens, McCarthy & Silvestre, 2011). For example, due to differences in the features we come across two terms, namely social media and industrial media. The major difference between social and industrial media is that industrial media is more expensive. It includes television, newspapers and films. In my opinion, it is important to distinguish different forms of media because without distinction new forms will never emerge and can even act as a hindrance. In the context of the difference between the new forms of media with rational forms is its ability to go viral. Due to the presence of a million of registered users a small issue can go viral through social media. Types of social media As seen above, social media has various features that allow users to accomplish crucial tasks. However, when a discussion about social media is going on, it is a necessity to underline the different types of social media present in the virtual world. From my personal experience as well as consultation of the textbooks, I have found there are 6 different types of social media namely collaborative projects, blogs and micro-blogs, content communities, social networking sites, virtual game worlds, and virtual social worlds (Gillgian, 2011). According to me, all of the aforementioned types of social media has their own significance and can be described as unique,

Behaviorist lesson plan Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Behaviorist lesson plan - Essay Example The behavior may be attributed to hyper activeness, curiosity and enthusiasm of young students. Young children’s brains are maturing, and they do not have the same capability to control themselves as adults do. As a teacher I should, therefore, understand the importance of teaching children abilities for controlling their behavior while appreciating that they need ongoing guidance and my supervision to stay safe. The child may be overwhelmed, close down and, hence, lash out physically or verbally to the teacher for not placing him in the first position. As the teacher I, thus, need to invest time, effort, compassion and patience to assist the child handle the feelings constructively. Children must be able to identify early interventions to enhance student behavior difficulties in the primitive years at the end of the lesson. The science student’s reactive aggressive behavior depicts its self through unplanned retaliation by the child due to being denied the first position when going into the lab. One element key in assessing change in aggressive behavior is teacher-students relationships. Behaviorist principles, such as developmental cascade theory have been used to explain persistent problems in early behavior. Theorists propose early behavior drawbacks in early schooling have cascading results that negatively influence subsequent psychosocial functioning and school success. Interventions such as Good Behavior Game that target behavioral difficulties at an early age attempts to prevent the negative

Colombian people Essay Example for Free

Colombian people Essay 2. List what is said about the British / Germans / Americans. British ?Bad food ?Not to easy going ?Pompous ?Arrogants ?Humorless Germans ?Stricts ?Punctuals ?Serious ?Precise ?Hardworkers Americans ?Loud ?Easygoing ?Ignorants ?Confidence 3. THEN MAKE A List of the adjectives / actions you think do stereotype the people from your country of origin. Colombians ?Easygoing ?Drug-dealers ?Like to party ?Coffee 4. Explain briefly whether you think there is some truth in them. Easygoing I think that Colombian people are very easygoing we can adapt to different cultures. Drug-dealers There is a belief that a huge of percent of the population work with cocaine, but actually there is small organization who deals with it and the vast majority of the population are normal people who work, study as the other population of the earth. Like to party In spite of the problems that the county has, we enjoy the life and seize any occasion for celebrate with passion and happiness. Coffee The best coffee in the world is produced in the Colombian’s mountains of a traditional and craft way.

Impact Of Media On Global Social Movements Politics Essay

Impact Of Media On Global Social Movements Politics Essay In this paper my aim would be to bring forth various views and theories of social movements and explore the evolution of global social movements in the recent past. In the later part of my paper I would be discussing the role of mass media in global social movements and would also include the concept of new media and contemporary social networks in the cyber space and their impact on global social movements. But first I would like to start with a few definitions and views on global social movements by eminent scholars and intellectuals. SOCIAL MOVEMENTS The term social movements was introduced in 1850 by the German Sociologist  Lorenz von Stein  in his book History of the French Social Movement from 1789 to the Present. Since then, the term has taken different meanings and interpretations. Charles Tilly  defines social movements as, a series of contentious performances, displays and campaigns by which ordinary people made collective claims on others  [1]  .  For Tilly, social movements are a major vehicle for ordinary peoples participation in public politics. Sidney Tarrow  defines a social movement as,  collective challenges to elites, authorities, other groups or cultural codes by people with common purposes and solidarity in sustained interactions with elites, opponents and authorities  [2]  . Scholars like Escobar see social movements as sources of alternatives, hopes and theories of how the world can be made differently  [3]  . Bourdieus argument on social movements is that, its not the market, as its tr ied to make us believe today, but the social movement, which has civilized the market economy while largely contributing to its efficacy  [4]  . Touraine, on the other hand, contends that social movements are not positive or negative agents of history, of modernization, or of the liberalization of mankind. They act in a given type of social production and organization  [5]  . His views differ from the romanticisers of social movements and from those who define a social action mainly in terms of effectiveness in bringing about social change or resistance, to varying degrees, like McAdam and Snow  [6]  . Social movements are also seen as organizational and political opportunities by some and as effects as well as results of power structures, class struggles and identity politics by others. Some like Rucht find the value by combining them and arguing that a social movement exists to the extent that the following qualities are co-present: In structural terms, social movement s are networks of groups and/or organizations; regarding their aims, they are attempts to fundamentally change society (including power structures and basic values) or to resist such changes  [7]  . Global social movements have intensified in recent years; some of these movements contest not only the actual nature and consequences of current global socioeconomic relations but also the very foundation governing them. One of the reasons may be the global economic and technological integration which has consistently been disarming the traditional welfare function of the state and in turn generating increased misery, inequalities and conflicts. This has provided grounds for citizens and civil society groups of diverse origins to express their resentment and advance claims in increased numbers. There has been an emergence and consolidation of global civil society which is believed to be bigger and wider, offering a positive response, even counterweight, to a narrow notion that linked globalization to economic processes alone. I would like to begin my discussion on GSMs with some theories relating to social movements. THEORIES OF SOCIAL MOVEMENT Typically, European social movement theorists tended to view contentious collective action through a Marxian lens, proffering structural analyses to varying degrees. However, a paradigm shift occurred which delineated old social movement theory (class based) from new social movement theory (culture based). I would discuss some theories relating to social movements like collective behaviour theory, resource mobilisation theory, political process theory, social constructionist theory, new social movement theory and the networks theory. Collective Behaviour Theory This theory states that social movements differ a little from other group manifestations, such as panics, crowds and crazes. Generally, this theory advanced the notion that social movements were little more than the most well-organized and self-conscious part of an archipelago of emergent phenomena, ranging from fads and rumours, to collective enthusiasm, riots, movements and revolutions  [8]  . There have been different approaches to this theory. Beginning with Symbolic interactionism which is a variant of classic collective behaviour theory wherein creative agency triumphs over structural determination, and the creation and interpretation of meaning are the key. This model views collective behaviour as the spontaneous development of norms and organization that contest the status quo, and provoke individual reactions to social disintegration, which then form into a general, collective response. Another version of collective behaviour theory parallels the overarching theoretical paradigm of structural-functionalism in an attempt to link broad, structural factors to specific occasions of collective behaviour unfolding in several necessary stages like, structural conduciveness, structural strain, generalized beliefs that provide meaning and motivation and events or actions that catalyse collective behaviour; physical mobilization of actors; and the absence or suspension of social control  [9]  . The third approach identifies Relative deprivation as the motivating force behind collective action represents another variant of classic collective behaviour theory. In sum, this concept stipulates that a group decides to act collectively when people judge themselves as lacking certain resources in relation to another group. Resource Mobilization Theory The demise of the collective behaviour paradigm came about during the tumultuous 1960s with the advent of new social movements. According to McAdam  [10]  , theorizing social movements as a response to social strain was problematic in that it did not take the larger political context into consideration. In assigning causation of social movements to individual discontent, collective behaviour was considered abnormal and apolitical. Resource mobilization theory arose during the 1970s as a response to the shortcomings of collective behaviour theory. It held that in contentious collective action, passion gave way to rational calculation, and the collective good acquiesced to individual gain as mobilizing factors. Thus, activism relied on the ability of social movements to muster resources and engage in planned, rational action  [11]  . In this analysis, activists were not considered under the sway of sentiments, emotions, and ideologies that guided his or her action; rather, coll ective behaviour should be understood in terms of the logic of costs and benefits as well as opportunities for action Proponents of this model argued that increased personal resources, the professionalization of activism and the availability of external financial support could adequately account for contentious collective action. The focus, therefore, was on resource aggregation, and facilitation by social movement organizations (SMOs), formal or professional organizations that identify their goals with those of a social movement. In contrast to collective behaviour theory, which focused on why collective action occurred, resource mobilization theory attempted to answer the persistent question of how social movements organized and mobilized. Political Process Theory The political process model developed as an alternative to resource mobilization theory. Here, the success or failure of social movements depended on political opportunities created by ruptures in the institutional structure and the ideology of power-holders  [12]  . Three essential components comprise this theory. The first demarks the political structure as an external factor not under the direct control of challengers, but critical to a movements success. The second is an internal factor: the organizational strength of activists, the product of interaction between movement members, leaders and incentives. The final component is McAdams  [13]  cognitive liberation, or a change in group consciousness whereby potential protesters see the existing social order not only as illegitimate, but also as subject to change through their own direct efforts  [14]  . Thus, revolutions owe less to the efforts of insurgents than to the work of systemic crises which render the existing regime weak and vulnerable to challenge from virtually any quarter. Social Constructionist Theory Social constructionism approaches collective action as an interactive, symbolically defined and negotiated process among participants, opponents and bystanders  [15]  . Central to this theory is, the concept is of framing, which describes how activists make sense of their social worlds  [16]  . Frames constitute shared understandings and identities that generate the trust and cooperation amongst activists necessary for collective action. In the context of social movements, frames dignify discontent, identify grievances and assemble the grievances of various groups  [17]  . Grievances are framed in three ways. Diagnostic framing identifies a problem as well as a target for action; and prognostic framing suggests solutions, including strategies and tactics specific to the target. Together, they mobilize consensus, creating a base from which movements may recruit; however, collective action is not the necessary outcome of this process. In order for people to act contentiousl y, they must have compelling reasons to do so. Thus, motivational framing provides inspiration and rationale for action  [18]  . New Social Movement Theory NSM theorists stressed that social transformation is mediated through culture as well as politics narrowly defined, that the personal and the cultural are as politically real as, and are not reducible to, power struggles in the state and economy  [19]  . As Melucci, observes, Conflicts move from the economic-industrial system to the cultural sphere. They focus on personal identity, the time and space of life, and the motivation and codes of daily behaviour  [20]  . That is to say, activists in new social movements turned their gaze inward, focusing on issues as they affected their personal lives, and pursuing social change through politicizing culture. Networks Theory The concept of networks helps to address the division created by a narrow focus on identity, as mediated through cultural analysis, in social movement theory. According to Castells, New information technologies, by transforming the processes of information processing, act upon all domains of human activity, and make it possible to establish endless connections between different domains, as well as between elements and agents of such activities  [21]  . Castells observes that, As people organized meaning around who they were, rather than what they did, the process of globalization relied on increasingly integrated networks of instrumental exchange  [22]  . According to Appadurai, the result of globalized communication and mass migration is the creation of diasporic public spheres, phenomena that confound theories that depend on the continued salience of the nation-state as the key arbiter of important social changes  [23]  . The electronic revolution has facilitated the g lobalization of capitalism; it has also enabled the globalization of protest, as Dyer-Witheford  [24]  observes: New information technologies therefore appear not just as instruments for the circulation of commodities, but simultaneously as channels for the circulation of struggles. Thus, social movements become increasingly global both in target and in form. The movements that oppose corporate globalization, like the Zapatistas and the Anti-Corporate Globalization Movement (ACGM), are prime examples of network-based social movements. My further discussions would primarily be based on this theory of networks in social movements with an emphasis on the rise of social networks in GSMs and their role in felicitating them. MEDIA AND GSMs In this part of my paper I would give a brief evolution of media as a tool for social change and would also discuss the use of ICTs in GSMs. I would give some examples of social media and would conclude this part with views of authors and scholars who are divided on the positive and negative role of media in social movements. MEDIA FOR CHANGE TRADITIONAL MEDIA Soon after the end of World War II the importance of mass media like newspapers, radio, cinema and television as accelerators in spreading ideas about progress and development began to be recognised. There are numerous examples in history where movements have been influenced by media. The issues at that time were more political than social but slowly, the same process was followed in carrying out social movements. It was already well documented how during War times radios and newspapers were used along with televisions to create a public sphere where people shared ideas and issues of common interest in a democracy. How leaders through their mesmerising speeches were able to instil patriotic feeling in their countrymen. These established norms gave way to the use of mass media in different social movements. In the Indian context one can find the use of such means during the Green Revolution, Family planning Communications. In Latin America, Paulo Freire (1971) used it for adult litera cy programmes. Even with the advent of the ICTs one can still find that the maximum amount of information dissemination in social movements, even today, is done through these means. May it be an environmental campaign or anti-corruption campaign, this mode still remains a dominant player in social change. NEW MEDIA: INTERNET The battles of Seattle, Washington, Prague and Genoa, with an unforeseen mixture of nationalities and movements, became world news. Interestingly, the new media seemed to play a crucial role in the organization of these global-protests. Internet has been widely used as a tool for social change and social movements in the recent past. I will illustrate some popular examples corroborating my statement. Zapatistas Movement Beginning in 1994, the Zapatistas used the Internet to turn a local dispute over land in Chiapas, Mexico into an international debate over the ill effects of corporate globalization. They incorporated their localized concerns over the implementation of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) into an international agenda opposed to global economic policies that usurp national political sovereignty and recolonize debtor nations. The Zapatistas and their supporters worldwide thus fashioned an ideology that rejected neoliberalism, which for them refers less to policy or theory and more directly to degrading environmental conditions and escalating human rights abuses  [25]  . Thus, they used the Internet to weave a new electronic fabric of struggle  [26]  to rally support for their revolution throughout Mexico and across the globe. The Anti-Corporate Globalization Movement The Anti-Corporate Globalization movement built on the foundations laid by the Zapatistas, using the Internet to connect with social justice activists around the world, to serve as a forum for education and discussion, and to disseminate information unavailable in the corporate mainstream press. The Internet was also critical in the logistical organization of the massive demonstrations against the World Trade Organization (WTO) in Seattle in 1999. This protest marked the birth of the ACGM, which gathered within its folds other activist movements, organizations and networks. For the first time in living memory, possibly ever, many different grievances and causes were represented under one broad banner: social justice. Thus workers walked arm in arm with environmentalists, feminists, human rights workers, farmers, and fair trade advocates. The Battle of Seattle marked the beginning of a new form of activism: the new communication technology that made the globalization of capital possib le also spurred the globalization of protest and facilitated globalization from below. The Internet was instrumental in both shrinking vast geographical distances, and in disseminating a new sort of global consciousness. There was also the increased use of SMSs by the protestors in organizing and carrying out their protests. There were termed as Smart Mobs, though it is still not a major tool of social movement it has had its impact during the 1999 Battle of Seattle, 1992 Critical Mass Bicycle demos of San Francisco and September 2000 protest in Britain over fuel price rise. Many social movements relating to environment, health, etc. have taken post Seattle through use of ICTs, social networking, websites, etc. The Coffee Party on Facebook is one such example of a movement that was initiated and primarily carried out on the social networking site Facebook. Though these developments seem to hold both a bright future for social movements and interesting times for social movement researchers, nothing assures us that movements always make society more democratic  [27]  . Tilly advocates that, technological determinism ought to be avoided and that one should recognize that not all new features of soci al movements result from technical innovations but most of them from alterations in their social and political contexts  [28]  . Relying on ICT services also requires being able to cope with their risks and dangers therefore most 21st century social movement activity continues to rely on the local, regional, and national forms of organization that already prevailed during the later 20th century  [29]  . HOSTILE MEDIA One of the first detailed examinations of a social movement protest in the media focused on a mass demonstration held against the Vietnam War in Britain  [30]  . The demonstration involved approximately 60,000 protesters, most of who marched peacefully through the streets of London (with an insignificant number of protestors involved in violent actions). However, despite the overwhelmingly peaceful nature of the march, the media concentrated most of its coverage on the issue of violence  [31]  . There were differences between media outlets in their coverage; they were all united by the overall focus on the same limited aspect the issue of violence. The misrepresentation of this massive political rally, and the totality of the negative coverage across all media outlets led the investigators to conclude that such reporting poses extreme problems for democracy, which may only be remedied by some form of institutional rearrangement  [32]  . For any social movement to draw beneficial attention to its activities in the mass media, the first barrier it must overcome is the structural constraints of the medium itself. According to Herman and Chomskys  [33]  Propaganda Model, there are five filters through which all news must pass, that actively shape the medias content. These are (1) the size, ownership and profit orientation of the media, (2) advertising, (3) sourcing, (4) flak (criticism) and (5) anti-communist ideology, which can be interpreted as keeping the discourse within the boundaries of elite interests. According to Sidney Tarrow, The media are crucial in a social movements efforts to broadcast its demands. But the media are anything but neutral in the framing of activists concerns and events. On the one hand, the media provide a broad base for consensus formation that is difficult for movements to achieve on their own. On the other hand, while the media may not work directly for the ruling class, they certain ly do not work for social movements  [34]  . CONCLUSION The mass media is an important outlet for social movements, where the quality and nature of media coverage strongly influences how they are perceived in the public eye. It is important for social movements, whose transitional and adversarial nature weakens their ability to secure public legitimacy. Their outsider status, along with their usual resource-poor nature, means that traditional avenues of publicity are not easily accessible and forces them to rely on alternative methods to obtain media access. Traditionally, this involves some form of public spectacle like a protest to attract media attention. These activities have become accepted as mechanisms by which social problems are communicated in the public sphere, alongside public opinion polls and elections and they act as vital means by which citizens can signal their discontent  [35]  . Key to any social movements eventual success in reforming the current world order is its ability to garner majority support, which is severely restricted by the mass media. Global justice movements profess to want to mobilise entire communities worldwide to enable truly participative decision-making. However, if this is really the case, they need to consider whether the same media system that serves to naturalise and legitimise elite decision-making, can really encourage its antithesis, collective grassroots decision-making. It seems an anathema to even consider that by working on the terms set by the mass media, social movements are actually legitimising and tightening its hegemonic power over society, even while it simultaneously acts to de-legitimise or ignore the global justice movement. Therefore, it is time for social movements to take collective action. To start with, democratic media reform needs to be recast as an end in itself, a public good, not simply a means by which eac h movement can get its message out  [36]  . In this way, a media reform project can be linked to the wider array of social movements calling for a more equitable and participatory democracy.

Cold War Manderin Essay -- Comparative, Ngo Dinh Diem, Seth Jacobs

The book, Cold War Mandarin Ngo Dinh Diem and the Origins of America’s War in Vietnam 1950-1963, by Seth Jacobs is a comprehensive retelling of the rise and fall of Ngo Dinh Diem’s government in South Vietnam. In that retelling Jacob focuses on the major events that took place in Vietnam as well as showed how America backed a leader that did nothing to booster his nation and led America into one of the worst wars in its history. The Diem regime was a corrupt and tyrannical government that used the United States’ fears of communism to push its own goals that ultimately led to its own demise. Jacob viewed the escalation of America’s involvement in Vietnam as the following, â€Å"The nine-year â€Å"experiment† that ended when Diem died was America’s crossover point from advice and support to active cobelligerency in a Vietnamese civil war† (8). Jacob in his book is very critical of the actions that both the Americans and Diem took in the establishment of South Vietnam. As the title of the book suggests, the author claims that Diem and his actions resulted in America becoming stuck in a war that would last over a decade. Diem, who was not very well known in either the United States as well as his own nation at the time the book starts in the early 1950s, was able to perpetuate himself into a position of power through use of both his faith as well as perpetuating generalized American fears. In the first chapter of his book, Jacobs looks at Diem’s early rise to power. Diem first worked under the French where he stood as a Minister of the Interior in the Bao Dai puppet government. Where Diem hated that the French who had control over Vietnam both economically as well as politically, one thing he hated more where the Viet Minh. The Vi... ... Ngo Dinh Diem and his regime. In Diems attempts to maintain a sense of national independence and ignoring American advisors in regards to how to manage his nation placed both himself and America in a very bad situation. Jacob broke down the reasons why Diem’s policies and decisions as head of state in Vietnam ultimately led to its demise, from his totalitarian policies and misuses of American funding/support. Jacobs does not put all blame on Diem but also points out that despite information gathered from American officials in Vietnam the American government supported a government that was unpopular and full of corruption. In the end Jacob reinforces his claim that the United States and their â€Å"Diem experiment† pushed America into a shifting relationship with Vietnam that would ultimately lock the nation into a state involvement that it could not back out of.

Laertes and Fortinbras as Foils for Shakespeares Hamlet Essay

Laertes and Fortinbras as Foils for Hamlet  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Hamlet, the major character in the Shakespeare play of the same name, was faced with a decision upon learning that Claudius murdered his father. Should he believe the ghost, and avenge his father's murder? Or is the ghost evil, trying to coerce him into killing Claudius? Throughout the play, we see Hamlet's struggle with this issue. Many opportunities arise for him to kill Claudius, but he is unable to act because he cannot convince himself to believe the Ghost. Shakespeare uses Laertes and Fortinbras as foils to Hamlet, in order to help us understand why Hamlet acts the way he does. Foils are used in plays so that the readers are better able to understand the major character (Hamlet). In a foil, the minor character is similar in many ways to the main character so that we will compare the two. However, it is through these similarities that we are able to see the more important differences between the two. The major foil for Hamlet is Laertes, the son of Polonius. The most obvious similarity is that they are both young men. They also come from relatively similar backgrounds, a Danish aristocratic upbringing. They also both have some college education. This leads us to another similarity; [Semicolons vs. colons] they both have the ability to use logical and rational reasoning. However, they do differ on their applications of logical reasoning. We see this logical and rational reasoning in Hamlet, in Acts 1& 2 when he sets up the "mouse trap" for Claudius, in order to determine if he is guilty of murdering his father. Hamlet's ability to think many moves ahead and predict what the king's reaction will be if he is guilty, shows a type of reasoning beyond a norma... ...f the papers in this set, you will see that the similarities between Fortinbras and Hamlet are not so obvious-- few writers picked up on them, and none did as good a job at specifying them as did this writer. Here again, this writer backs up the statement with numerous specific examples. Some weak writers who are also weak thinkers will use words such as "obvious" when they have no evidence and may in fact be wrong. In such cases, the use of the word "obvious" is an attempt to cow the reader by implying that if the reader does not see what is supposed to be "obvious" then the reader is stupid. Be careful in using such words, and beware when you find them in your reading. (Another favorite is the phrase "of course.") Works Cited: Shakespeare, William. The Tragedy of Hamlet. ca. 1600-1601. Ed. Edward Hubler. A Signet Classic. New York: Penguin Publishers,1963.

Critique of Robert Frost Essay examples -- essays research papers

Marion Montgomery, â€Å"Robert Frost and His Use of Barriers: Man vs. Nature Toward God,† Englewood Cliffs, NJ; Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1962. Reprinted by permission of The South Atlantic Quarterly.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Robert Frost is considered by the casual reader to be a poet of nature like that of a Wordsworth. In a sense, his poetry is about nature, yet with strong underlying tones of the drama of man in nature. Frost himself stated, â€Å"I guess I’m not a nature poet,† â€Å" I have only written two without a human being in them (138).† Marion Montgomery’s critical essay plays with the epitaph that Frost proposes for himself in The Lesson for Today: â€Å"I have a lovers quarrel with the world.† Montgomery says, that the lovers quarrel is Frost’s poetic subject, and states, â€Å"throughout his poetry there is evidence of this view of mans’ existence in the natural world (138). The essay examines how Frost’s attitude toward nature is one with armed and amicable truce and mutual respect interwoven with boundaries of the two principles, individual man and the forces of the world. But the boundaries are insisted upon. The critical essay examines how Frost’s direct addresses of nature are often how man is essentially different from objects and features of nature. Montgomery insists, â€Å"†¦his trees and animals, though he speaks to them, do no take on grave countenances (140).† The jest of Montgomery’s ideal is when Frost speaks directly to or directly of natural objects or creatures, â€Å"that ...

Pygmalion. The identity of Eliza how does it change and is it for the better?

Pygmalion was written by Bernard Shaw in 1914. The play tells the story of a man called Henry Higgins; a professor of phonetics who makes a bet with a friend Colonel Pickering that he can successfully pass of a low-common cockney flower girl, Eliza Doolittle as a sophisticated lady by teaching her how to speak with an upper class accent and an improvement in etiquette. Eliza Doolittle by chance meets Higgins and grabs the opportunity to better herself. Eliza wants to improve herself so she can be a flower-seller in a shop instead of on the streets. Eliza manages this after a lot of hard work and she changes in a number of ways. The changes Eliza makes include: learning to speak correctly by Higgins tuition, she learns about personal hygiene, she learns manners from Mrs Higgins; she learns how to dress properly by Mr Higgins, her confidence and self-esteem increases with Mr Higgins behaviour towards her. The ending of the play is ambiguous because although Eliza has changed her identity, she is so unrecognizable to the other street flower sellers that she no longer fits into her old class and society anymore; she is no longer sure of who she actually is. The first time we meet Eliza is when she is trying to sell flowers to people who are running for shelter from the rain into the porch of St. Paul's church. It becomes apparent that Liza is a low-common flower girl with her gutter speech. There is a note taker who is taking down what the flower girl is saying, which then leads her to think he is a police officer. At this time the flower girl is the only person who doesn't have a name. The significance of this is that, it's as if she doesn't have an identity, however she does have some sort of identity with her personality. â€Å"Thank you kindly, lady. â€Å"I'm a good girl, I am. † This evidence shows how she is has a general sense of manners, she treats people well and with consideration, which as the play continues is something that Higgins doesn't have. Higgins was treating her like she was nothing and he and her father look on her as commodity as Doolittle offers Higgins to pay for her. A change that Liza encounters is her hygiene, in order for Liza to be treated like a lady and receive her lessons; she must wash and dress properly. It soon becomes apparent that Liza is apprehensive about having a bath, one thing Liza rarely does. You expect me to get into that and wet myself all over! Not me I should catch my death†. This evidence clearly shows Liza's working class stigma – a disgrace to others around her after finding out she's never had a proper wash before. Liza's appearance also causes a controversy in the way she wears ‘rags' all the time, as appearance is an important factor when a change of identity occurs. This is a very positive change in Liza because now she has changed to be a hygienic person and looks like a lady. Throughout, the play when Liza is growing and learning every day, she gets respected mo re from other people. (Very courteous) won't you sit down? † This suggests the great respect Pickering pays Liza from the beginning. As a result of Liza's improved treatment from others, it make her self esteem increase, she gets more confident. The audience will notice Pickering acting like a true gentleman. Liza needs respect during her change in identity, so this is a positive change. After a period of time, Higgins decides to test Liza to see if she has learnt anything of what he has taught her. He takes Liza to his mother's at-home day. However, after a while Liza suddenly starts to relapse back into her old gutter speech and mind. They done the old woman in† â€Å"Gin was mother's milk to her. † This evidence suggests that Liza hasn't actually changed at all. The language she used reminds us of her old cockney flower girl image and that she still reflects on her now. There is still more work that Liza needs to do in order to be a lady, this reflects badly on her after her hard work to achieve where she was. Throughout the play, it has been seen that the way Liza is treated by Higgins is rather unpleasant, he puts her under a lot of pressure. He treats her with disrespect and with a certain dislike. Put her in the dustbin† this evidence shows how Higgins doesn't have any respect for the girl, this treatment continues throughout the play. The language used would create the effect that he doesn't like her cares what happens to Liza, it looks like they have a bad relationship, but he's teaching her to stand up to him which could be the greatest of all her identity changes, so this is a positive change to her because he is forcing her to stand up to him but it could also be a unhappy encounter because of the lack of respect at the time. Liza only originally planned to have the lessons to make her speech better, so she could achieve her dreams of becoming a flower-seller in a shop; however more fundamental changes have taken place. â€Å"she must be a princess at least† this evidence shows that she has achieve her original goals, but she has also gained some which include confidence from her new voice and appearance; her appearance has changed quite a lot, her posture changes, her manners and respect change and also her hygiene along the way. So this is a very positive change however, Liza may feel as if she has become two separated from her original plans. After Liza's hard work and determination she feels she cannot go back to the gutter. â€Å"I have forgotten my own language, and I can speak nothing but yours† this evidence suggests how she has lost her old life behind and doesn't want to be part of her old life again. Liza has grown as an independent lady and doesn't want her past to reflect her new life- but this doesn't fit into her new life because she has become so far away, she doesn't know who she really is anymore. This creates an effect on the audience because she is showing she has changed and is not the same person, she used to be. Liza has shown an external change rather than on the inside because she still reverts back to her gutter speech at certain times. Overall, Liza has changed. She has changed in many different ways which include her new identity which has come along with her improved hygiene, self-esteem/confidence, etiquette, views, goals/ambitions and her relationships such as one which formed with Freddy. Liza has found her self-importance and independence which she can now leave Higgins, without his need all the time, as she leaves with Freddy, which doesn't entirely make her happy. Liza would have liked to stay with Higgins but he didn't want her. She can't return to her previous life because Higgins has left her unfit for it, example is Liza's father Doolittle, who hates being rich. If anything Liza's transformation has taken away her identity because she no longer knows who she is; she isn't Doolittle's daughter anymore, no longer a street flower seller and no longer Higgins experiment. She doesn't know what her future holds and doesn't know what she is going to do.

Broad Political Theory Questions

Picking on materialism in Feuerbach, Marx claims sensuousness and actuality as the main objects of contemplation. This implicitly implies that humanity is interested on selfish issues which result to individual pleasure. Objectivity is also viewed in regards to whether humanity can remain objective. Marx‘s position is of critical importance though the stand on whether it has changed the world remains debatable. Locke’s philosophy has played a big part in the present day events. A look at the American constitution serves as a pointer to this view.Even the unites nations charter on human rights seems to have made reference to Lockes’ work especially on property rights. Locke seems too be an advocate of a free society in which individuals get to benefit equitably. Though this has not been achieved, the society has made remarkable improvements towards attaining certain universal goals like the millennium development goals. The pursuit of objectivity as implied by Marx is thus a unifying feature of the two philosophers. Plato only interpreted the world while attempting to achieve his goal of indicating or underscoring the importance of the republic.Whereas, the pursuit if justice is of noble consideration, it remains to be seen whether, it has been achieved or whether it will ever be achieved. The effect that the Plato philosophy has had remains persistent and unbroken. The academy the philosopher opened in Athens remains a pillar of the works undertaken by the scholar. The influences of Plato are known to have played a significant role in shaping various religious developments over a long period of time. If justice is to be attained, then objectivity is a prerequisite, a fact observed by Marx. 2. Machiavelli used hypocrisy to lay siege on the Christian faith.The philosopher was always against morality apart from the support he gave to those intending to stand on its way. Christianity is based on what its faith call good morals. As Machiavelli pu ts it, morality is not an issue if it cannot be justified. Machiavelli believed that it’s the ‘end that justifies the means’. Machiavelli saw every piece of religion as an act of propaganda. Machiavelli thought that the Christian faith would collapse before the world itself came to an end. Through social relativism, Machiavelli claimed the absence of the Christian god.In this construction, it was claimed that since God never existed to offer universal morals, then there were no morals top be followed. Socrates is believed to have carried a study on what constituted holiness. This in itself presented an act of impiety. While facing a case in Xenophon, Socrates twice objected to using a divine sign ass he prepared his defense. Socrates in another case chose to save Euthyphro instead of saving himself. In short, the prime focus rests on the accusation against Socrates as introducing new gods in the town. The two philosophers appeared to have veered off societal godl y underpinnings.The fact that Socrates is accused of bringing gods to town serves as a pointer to the fact that there are respected and un-respected gods. Machiavelli’s rebuttal of the Christian faith also presents the philosopher as a person that objects to well crafted societal religious leanings. It is thus held that these two philosophers played a role in jeopardizing well regarded traditions during their time. 3. Socrates uses the human tendency to corruption to propagate his preferred type of leadership. Socrates points to timocracy, democracy, oligarchy, and tyranny as unacceptable forms of government.Socrates finally submitted that if ruling was to attain the best for society, then it should be left to philosopher leaders. In Socrates’ thinking, the philosophers were the most just and least susceptible to graft. The scholar augmented the position by claiming that the philosophers were in a position to rule in pursuit of the good for the city as opposed to for t he self. In a legitimate society, there is no room for societal divisions; all citizens should enjoy same level benefits. Thomas Hobbes’ views on the best possible form or structure of government were premised on a society led by a powerful leviathan.Based on social contract theories, the focus remains on the creation of a strong centre of administration. This type of government as proposed by Hobbes will guarantee the security and welfare of the people. Any abuses that may arise as a result of the leadership by the leviathan must be accepted. This is premised on the fact that the people by setting up the leviathan, agreed to cede their natural power. Socrates manages to drive to his peers that a government is a role played best by people disconnected with self interest.On the other hand, one gets the impression that Hobbes was driving home the need to have a powerful leadership that was not answerable to people. In the Socrates’ society individuals would have a say, w hile in the Hobbesian society, individuals would not hold a say on public issues. 4. Thomas Hobbes believed that human desires, selfish interests, pleasures and pains of a moment played a key role in decision making. These factors among others imply tat the human nature cannot be relied upon in passing judgment on a number of issues as distortions may occur.Hobbes focal point in relation to human nature remains premised on the concept of motivation. Hobbes saw man as a self centered and rationally calculating individual. It is thus highly unlikely that people will pursue common good. Individuals due to their selfish stances are thus destined top pursue personal goals even if this means putting the goals of the rest at stake. In Hobbes thinking, common good is thus an illusion. In reference to Plato, the pursuit of happiness had to lie with the observation of virtues and commonly accepted doctrines.Plato held the Sophistic view concerning knowledge which saw it as subjective and rela tive. This, in reference to Plato, undermined morality. It thus led Plato into believing that there was no infallible truth. Plato failed to see the point why a person who could not understand the self and rules of morality would be bound to look beyond the principle of self actualization. In short, if morality does not take care of individual interests, then individuals are not bound to observe its dictates. Plato saw man’s nature as rational and expected society to be organized in tandem with requirements of civility on rational principles.As a rational being, a human being knows or is in a position to evaluate every case scenario and pursues what best serves the interests desired by the individual in question. 5. On the basis of Aristotle, happiness is not primarily premised upon an exercise of virtue but rather on the administering of an ideal state. In a nut shell, the interests of all are closely knit together such that the interests of all resemble the interests of a s ingle individual in the republic. In precise terms, all individual acts are for the common good. This altruistic stance remains questionable as it is difficult in practice top find such states.Niccolo Machiavelli is famous for the advice given to the monarch with a view to power monopolization. Machiavelli advocated for policies that would discourage mass activism in political affairs. Machiavelli believed the citizenry was well exercising its energies in private practice in the process leaving out political and state activities. In his book, the Prince, Machiavelli urged the monarch to use violence and force to achieve the government goals. Machiavelli held the view that political aims could not be led by a single set of religious or moral ideas.From the above two positions, it emerges that there are interests to be protected by any state or society. The societal or state claims are wide varied as the ruled and the rulers may conflict on interests. Even if there were no conflicts, still issues regarding approach would arise. This puts the leaders, the few, against the ruled, the many. On this basis, Machiavelli sought to have the ruler have enormous responsibility in making decisions as the many could spoil the aspirations of a republic. However, Aristotle envisaged a scenario; whereby the interests are melted down to reflect a single position, a position difficult to reach.Hence this implied that the leaders had to take a position that they thought would serve societal interests. 6. Aristotle viewed natural justice as a special species of political justice. Inn this view, Aristotle believed that a society had to enlist distributive and corrective measures to ensure societal cohesion. Aristotle claimed further, that the best regime may not after all the one that observes the rule of law in its operations. On the basis of Aristotle every civilized society had a set of rules and regulations it used to govern behaviour.In Aristotle’s views, civilized soci ety emerged as a result of the emerging need to develop laws to regulate certain aspects of life within different societies. Thomas Hobbes uses the term leviathan to capture the collective will of people. These people come together to form a government that retains the sovereign authority. To Thomas Hobbes, collective will is the major force behind the formation of a civilized society. The people realized that they had collective desire, to achieve the different desires; they saw it worthy to establish an authority to take care of their needs.The biggest need being the provision of security so that each individual gets to go about their business without undue disturbance. The differences appear minute in this case as Aristotle’s view of a civilized society was based on the need for cohesiveness in society. On the other hand, the need for civility in reference to Thomas Hobbes rested on the drive to protect collective will. The act of protecting collective will is almost in li ne with regulating societal aspects so as to exact compliance. However, this should not be misconstrued to mean that the two mean the same thing as only similarities exist.7. Aristotle believed that family existed just for the sake of political life. Further to this, Aristotle supposedly viewed politics as practiced for friendship purposes. Contrary to this position, Aristotle discussed family relations as types of friendships which are used as designs of political rule. He thus obscures the ordering of the relationships that he advocates in politics. The practice of politics must observe friendly relations just as a family does. In the terms of Aristotle, politics is thus useful in strengthening family ties.The family integrates people into a family and thus aids the formation or the commencement of political life. John Locke’s 2nd treatise of government aimed to show that there was a legitimate foundation between people and power. This was captured by the social contract th eory. Locke believed that a political society is not a form of family. In this regard, Locke was trying to discredit the patriarchal kingship. Locke went further to claim that a magistrate’s position on a case could not be compared o a father’s on a child’s case. Locke saw two distinct societies in this scenario.Locke further claimed that the creation of the two societies was different and meant to achieve different goals. In Locke’s observation, the political society’s end is to possess property unlike a familial one that aims at raising children. The major separation point between the two scholars is premised on the aims of the two societies and how they are formed. Whereas Aristotle assumed that the two societies pursue one aim, Locke clearly shows that the aims are distinct in the two societies. The reasons for formation are equally found to be different as opposed to the views posited by Aristotle. 8.Locke’s position on money is viewed in relation to the right to ownership of property. In Locke’s opinion, each individual had the right to acquire property through hard work. However, Locke only saw it necessary that an individual amasses what they only need and ensure that in that pursuit, their labor does not become destructive. In precise terms, what Locke stood for was acquisitions of needs. He was opposed to excessive accumulation of wealth which defines the current society. Locke appeared to assume that all things were naturally available to everybody and thus objected to the systems of accumulation.An accumulation beyond what one could use at the time amounted to acquiring an unfair share. Aristotle saw the necessity of money in human life. However, he made a number of proposals regarding currency. Aristotle saw money as a common measure of al things available for consumption. In a nut shell, Aristotle saw money as the surest way of equalizing all consumables. In Aristotle’s terms, money was nece ssary to ensure a just and fair exchange system. The philosopher thus argued that money came up in a bid to ease the problem of exchange.In Aristotle’s terms good money had to be durable, portable, divisible, and intrinsically valuable. On the basis of the above presentation, it is crystal clear that Locke saw money as a potential for unfair practices. It could only be fair if each individual would acquire a rightful amount so that everybody’s interests are taken care of. In reference to Aristotle, money was good only if it could be used for constructive purposes. Aristotle did not envisage money to be used in a commercialized manner. This is because of what Aristotle perceived as the nature’s limited nature.